Japanese Multi-Functional Verbs: Compound Verbs & Polysemy¶
Exploring how Japanese verbs - like English "give up / give in / give out" - combine with various elements to produce diverse meanings
Part of the Roots of Japanese project. See also: Catalog | The Data | Sound Roots
Introduction¶
In English, "give" changes meaning dramatically depending on the particle that follows: "give up" (surrender), "give in" (yield), "give out" (distribute / run out), "give away" (donate / reveal). This pattern of a core verb combining with various elements is very familiar to language learners. What's less known is that Japanese has an identical mechanism for creating multi-functional verb expressions.
Japanese multi-functional verbs appear in two main forms:
- Compound verbs (複合動詞 / ふくごうどうし) - "verb + verb" combinations where the second verb functions like an English particle
- Polysemous verbs (多義動詞 / たぎどうし) - single verbs that radiate multiple meanings from a core concept
This article focuses on the second verb (V2) in compound verbs, comparing them to English phrasal verbs, and maps out the full system of Japanese multi-functional verbs.
Chapter 1: What Are Compound Verbs?¶
1.1 Basic Structure¶
Compound verbs are formed by taking the masu-stem (連用形) of V1 + V2:
言う (いう) → 言い (いい) + 始める → 言い始める (いいはじめる) = to start to say
食べる → 食べ + 始める → 食べ始める = to start eating
走る → 走り + 出す → 走り出す = to suddenly start running
V1 provides the core action, while V2 adds aspect (temporal nuance), direction, degree, or other layers of meaning. The compound verb conjugates according to V2's pattern (ichidan/godan).
1.2 Two Types¶
Compound verbs fall into two broad categories:
| Type | Characteristics | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Syntactic Compound Verbs | V2 functions as a grammatical auxiliary. Combines freely with almost any V1. V1 can be a suru-verb, passive, or causative | 〜始める (begin), 〜過ぎる (too much), 〜続ける (continue), 〜直す (redo), 〜合う (mutually) |
| Lexical Compound Verbs | V1+V2 combinations are restricted. Meanings are idiomatic and fixed. Must be memorized individually | 思い出す (remember), 落ち着く (calm down), 見積もる (estimate) |
Syntactic compounds are the closest Japanese equivalent to English phrasal verbs - the V2 acts like a particle. Lexical compounds require more individual study but dramatically expand expressive power once learned.
Chapter 2: Catalog of Multi-Functional Second Verbs (V2)¶
Just as English uses "up," "in," "out" to modify "give," Japanese uses the following V2 elements to modify V1.
2.1 Inception - 始める vs 出す¶
Both mean "start" but with a crucial nuance difference:
| V2 | Reading | Nuance | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| 〜始める | はじめる | Planned, gradual onset. Deliberate action or natural process. | 食べ始める (start eating), 勉強し始める (start studying), 降り始める (start raining) |
| 〜出す | だす | Sudden, spontaneous onset. Uncontrolled burst of action. | 泣き出す (burst into tears), 走り出す (break into a run), 笑い出す (burst out laughing) |
Compare: 「雨が降り始めた」= "It started to rain" (gradual, neutral) vs 「突然、子どもが泣き出した」= "Suddenly the child burst into tears" (uncontrolled, unexpected)
2.2 Continuation & Completion¶
| V2 | Reading | Core Meaning | English Equivalent | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 〜続ける | つづける | continuation | keep doing | 働き続ける (keep working), 考え続ける (keep thinking), 増え続ける (keep increasing) |
| 〜終わる | おわる | natural completion | finish doing | 食べ終わる (finish eating), 読み終わる (finish reading), 書き終わる (finish writing) |
| 〜上げる | あげる | complete to a high standard | finish up / complete | 書き上げる (finish writing), 縫い上げる (finish sewing), 仕上げる (complete) |
| 〜切る | きる | do completely / exhaustively | do completely / use up | 使い切る (use up), 信じ切る (fully believe), 食べ切る (eat up) |
| 〜尽くす | つくす | do to the fullest, leaving nothing | exhaust / do utterly | 食べ尽くす (eat everything), 語り尽くす (talk thoroughly), 出尽くす (run out of ideas) |
| 〜抜く | ぬく | see through to the end, endure | fight through / endure | 生き抜く (survive), 耐え抜く (endure through), 勝ち抜く (win through) |
| 〜通す | とおす | persist, carry through | carry through | やり通す (see through), 読み通す (read through), 押し通す (push through) |
| 〜果てる | はてる | completely (extreme state) | utterly (state) | 疲れ果てる (exhausted), 困り果てる (at a complete loss) |
〜上げる is a classic example of multi-functionality - it has a literal physical meaning ("look up" = 見上げる) and an aspectual meaning ("write to completion" = 書き上げる).
2.3 Reciprocal & Repetitive¶
| V2 | Reading | Core Meaning | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| 〜合う | あう | mutually / each other | 話し合う (discuss together), 助け合う (help each other), 愛し合う (love each other) |
| 〜返す | かえす | do back / repeat | 言い返す (talk back), 繰り返す (repeat), 思い返す (reflect) |
| 〜直す | なおす | redo (to correct) | 書き直す (rewrite), やり直す (redo), 考え直す (reconsider) |
〜合う is especially productive - it can also nominalize (話し合い = discussion), replacing a whole "each other" phrase with a single word.
2.4 Spatial & Movement (the Polymorphic King: 込む)¶
〜込む (こむ) is the most multi-functional V2 in Japanese, with at least 5 distinct meanings - all derived from the core image of "inward movement":
| Meaning Category | Examples | Description |
|---|---|---|
| ① Physical inward movement | 飛び込む (jump in), 押し込む (push into) | Literal "going into" a space |
| ② Psychological absorption | 考え込む (lost in thought), 思い込む (be convinced) | Deep mental engagement |
| ③ Thorough / intensive action | 飲み込む (swallow / grasp), 話し込む (deep conversation) | Doing something fully |
| ④ Writing / entering into a container | 書き込む (fill in a form), 打ち込む (type in / devote to) | Putting into a medium |
| ⑤ Crowding / forcing in | 詰め込む (cram), 割り込む (cut in line) | Forcing into limited space |
This is a textbook example of cognitive semantic extension - all five meanings radiate from the prototypical "outside → inside" schema.
Other spatial V2s:
| V2 | Reading | Meaning | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| 〜上がる (intr.) | あがる | upward / completion | 立ち上がる (stand up), でき上がる (be finished) |
| 〜上げる (tr.) | あげる | raise up / complete | 見上げる (look up), 書き上げる (write up) |
| 〜渡る | わたる | spread across / pervade | 晴れ渡る (clear all over), 響き渡る (resound) |
| 〜散らす | ちらす | scatter about | 書き散らす (scribble here and there), 怒鳴り散らす (shout at everyone) |
2.5 Failure & Negation¶
English phrasal verbs don't have dedicated particles for "failure," but Japanese has a rich set:
| V2 | Reading | Meaning | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| 〜損なう | そこなう | fail to / miss | 食べ損なう (miss eating), 見損なう (fail to see), 聞き損なう (mishear) |
| 〜忘れる | わすれる | forget to | 言い忘れる (forget to say), 置き忘れる (leave behind), 書き忘れる (forget to write) |
| 〜そびれる | そびれる | miss the chance | 食べそびれる (miss the chance to eat), 聞きそびれる (miss hearing) |
| 〜かねる | かねる | cannot (polite refusal) | 引き受けかねる (cannot take on), 決めかねる (cannot decide) |
| 〜誤る | あやまる | make a mistake | 書き誤る (write incorrectly), 判断し誤る (misjudge) |
2.6 Habit & Ability¶
| V2 | Reading | Meaning | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| 〜慣れる | なれる | get used to | 使い慣れる (get used to using), 食べ慣れる (be accustomed to eating) |
| 〜飽きる | あきる | get tired of | 食べ飽きる (get tired of eating), 聞き飽きる (get bored of hearing) |
| 〜こなす | こなす | master / handle skillfully | 乗りこなす (handle a vehicle well), 使いこなす (use skillfully) |
Chapter 3: Multi-Functional First Verbs (V1)¶
Just as English "give" combines with many particles, certain Japanese V1 verbs are highly productive, combining with many V2s to create rich meanings. Think of these as your "multi-functional bases."
取り〜 (とり) ← 取る (とる) = to take¶
"Take" as a base produces dozens of compounds:
| Compound | Meaning | Breakdown |
|---|---|---|
| 取り上げる | pick up / take up / confiscate | take + raise |
| 取り入れる | adopt / take in | take + put in |
| 取り消す | cancel / take back | take + erase |
| 取り組む | tackle / engage in | take + assemble |
| 取り締まる | control / regulate | take + tighten |
| 取り戻す | take back / recover | take + return |
| 取り調べる | investigate | take + examine |
| 取り替える | exchange / replace | take + change |
引き〜 (ひき) ← 引く (ひく) = to pull¶
The core image is "pulling toward oneself," extended metaphorically:
| Compound | Meaning |
|---|---|
| 引き受ける | take on (a task / responsibility) |
| 引き出す | pull out / withdraw (money) |
| 引き寄せる | attract / pull toward |
| 引き続く | continue / follow |
| 引き返す | turn back |
| 引き止める | stop / detain |
| 引き渡す | hand over / extradite |
見〜 (み) ← 見る (みる) = to see¶
From physical sight to metaphorical perception:
| Compound | Meaning |
|---|---|
| 見上げる | look up (to) |
| 見下ろす | look down (on) |
| 見送る | see off / forgo (an opportunity) |
| 見積もる | estimate |
| 見守る | watch over |
| 見逃す | miss / overlook |
| 見抜く | see through / detect |
| 見渡す | survey / look over |
受け〜 (うけ) ← 受ける (うける) = to receive¶
| Compound | Meaning |
|---|---|
| 受け入れる | accept (a person / idea) |
| 受け取る | receive / accept (a package) |
| 受け付ける | tolerate / accept (applications) |
| 受け持つ | be in charge of |
| 受け継ぐ | inherit / succeed |
| 受け止める | catch / react to |
Other Multi-Functional V1s¶
| V1 | Reading | Original Verb | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| 立ち〜 | たち | 立つ (stand) | 立ち上がる (stand up), 立ち寄る (stop by), 立ち向かう (confront), 立ち直る (recover) |
| 押し〜 | おし | 押す (push) | 押し切る (push through), 押し込む (push in), 押し通す (insist), 押し寄せる (crowd in) |
| 打ち〜 | うち | 打つ (strike) | 打ち合わせる (coordinate), 打ち切る (discontinue), 打ち消す (deny), 打ち上げる (launch) |
| 追い〜 | おい | 追う (chase) | 追いかける (chase after), 追い越す (overtake), 追い込む (corner), 追い出す (expel) |
| 飛び〜 | とび | 飛ぶ (fly) | 飛び込む (jump in), 飛び出す (rush out), 飛び立つ (take off), 飛び回る (run around) |
| 吹き〜 | ふき | 吹く (blow) | 吹き出す (burst out laughing), 吹き飛ばす (blow away), 吹き込む (blow in / record) |
| 持ち〜 | もち | 持つ (hold) | 持ち上げる (lift up), 持ち込む (bring in), 持ち出す (take out), 持ち帰る (take home) |
| 繰り〜 | くり | 繰る (flick through) | 繰り返す (repeat), 繰り上げる (move up), 繰り下げる (postpone), 繰り出す (send out) |
| 乗り〜 | のり | 乗る (ride) | 乗り換える (transfer), 乗り込む (board), 乗り越える (overcome), 乗り出す (set out) |
| 踏み〜 | ふみ | 踏む (step) | 踏み切る (make the leap), 踏み込む (step into), 踏み出す (step forward), 踏み外す (stumble) |
Chapter 4: Single Verbs with Many Meanings (Polysemy)¶
Beyond compound verbs, many basic Japanese verbs themselves carry multiple related meanings - just like English "give" (donate, produce, bend, utter, etc.). The NINJAL Basic Verb Handbook covers 190 polysemous verbs in detail.
4.1 とる (取る・撮る・執る・採る) - "take"¶
Prototype: "grasp with the hand"
- Physically take: 手に取る (take in hand), 席を取る (take a seat)
- Obtain: 休みを取る (take a day off), 資格を取る (get a qualification)
- Record: 写真を撮る (take a photo), メモを取る (take notes)
- Remove: 汚れを取る (remove dirt), 塩分を取る (remove salt)
- Choose: Aを取る (choose A)
- Ingest: 食事を取る (have a meal)
- Interpret: 意味を取る (interpret the meaning)
- Take time: 手間取る (take effort / be time-consuming)
4.2 かける - "put/hang/apply"¶
Prototype: "put X onto Y"
- Physically put on: 眼鏡をかける (put on glasses), 布団をかける (spread a futon)
- Communication: 電話をかける (make a phone call), 声をかける (call out to)
- Construct: 橋をかける (build a bridge), 罠をかける (set a trap)
- Time elapsed: 時間がかかる (take time)
- Apply burden: 負担をかける (cause burden), 迷惑をかける (cause trouble), 圧力をかける (apply pressure)
- V2 of compounds: 浴びせかける (shower upon), 襲いかかる (attack), 呼びかける (appeal to)
4.3 はる (張る) - "stretch/spread/apply"¶
Prototype: "spread something flat over a surface"
- Paste/apply: ポスターを張る (put up a poster), のりで張る (glue on)
- Stretch: ロープを張る (stretch a rope), 網を張る (spread a net)
- Puff out: 胸を張る (puff out one's chest), 肩を張る (square one's shoulders)
- Cost (idiomatic): 値が張る (be expensive)
- Harden/freeze: 道路が張る (the road freezes)
- Compounds: 張り切る (be eager), 張り合う (compete), 張り込む (stake out)
4.4 ぬく (抜く) - "pull out/extract"¶
Prototype: "pull something from inside to outside"
- Physically pull out: 歯を抜く (pull a tooth), 栓を抜く (pull a stopper), 刀を抜く (draw a sword)
- Select: 選抜する (select), データを抜く (extract data)
- Overtake: 人を抜く (pass someone)
- Remove: 疲れを抜く (relieve fatigue), アクを抜く (remove harshness)
- V2 of compounds: 戦い抜く (fight through), 考え抜く (think through / thoroughly)
This kind of radial category expansion - where a core meaning extends via metaphor and metonymy - is exactly the same phenomenon as English "give" or "take."
Chapter 5: NINJAL's "Compound Verb Lexicon" Classification¶
The most authoritative academic resource is the Compound Verb Lexicon (複合動詞レキシコン) by the National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics (NINJAL), covering 2,700+ compound verbs. It classifies compounds into 4 structural types:
VV Type (Verb + Verb)¶
Both V1 and V2 retain their literal meanings and argument structures. Can be paraphrased as "V1-te V2."
| Compound | Paraphrase | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 踏みつぶす | 踏んでつぶす (step + crush) | trample and crush |
| 押し開ける | 押して開ける (push + open) | push open |
| 歩き疲れる | 歩いて疲れる (walk + get tired) | get tired from walking |
| 流れ着く | 流れて着く (drift + arrive) | drift to |
V2 determines the compound's overall argument structure (case relations).
Vs Type (Verb + Subsidiary Verb)¶
V2 has become a subsidiary/auxiliary verb, losing its literal meaning. Cannot be paraphrased as "V1-te V2." Instead, V2 adverbializes V1's meaning. V1 determines argument structure.
| Compound | Meaning (paraphrase) | Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| 晴れ渡る | clear all over (V2 = "all over") | V2 modifies V1 adverbially |
| 降りしきる | fall incessantly | V2 しきる cannot stand alone |
| 咲き誇る | bloom proudly | V2 誇る is figurative |
| 待ちわびる | wait anxiously | V2 わびる only combines with 待つ |
Characteristics of Vs-type V2 elements:
- Add lexical aspect (Aktionsart) meaning
- Have different meaning from when used independently
- Combine with a very limited set of V1s
- Some cannot be used as independent verbs in modern Japanese
- Some have incomplete inflection paradigms
pV Type (Prefix + Verb)¶
V1 has grammaticalized into a prefix, merely emphasizing V2. V2 determines argument structure.
| Compound | Original V1 | Effect |
|---|---|---|
| 差し迫る | 差す (insert) | emphasizes 迫る (approach) |
| ぶっ飛ばす | 打つ (strike) | emphasizes 飛ばす (send flying) |
| 打ち重なる | 打つ (strike) | emphasizes 重なる (pile up) |
| ひっぱたく | 引く (pull) | emphasizes 叩く (slap) |
V Type (Lexicalized as One Word)¶
Modern speakers perceive these as a single word, not a composition of two:
| Verb | Decomposition | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| 落ち着く | fall + arrive | calm down / settle |
| 思い出す | think + take out | remember |
| 折り入る | bend + enter | privately / confidentially |
Conclusion: The Big Picture of Japanese Multi-Functional Verbs¶
Japanese multi-functional verbs operate on three layers. Mastering all three unlocks native-like expressive power:
Layer 1: Syntactic Compound Verbs (V2 as Particle)¶
About two dozen core V2 patterns that function like English particles. V1 is free.
- Key patterns: 〜始める (begin), 〜出す (start suddenly), 〜続ける (continue), 〜終わる (finish), 〜過ぎる (too much), 〜直す (redo), 〜合う (mutually)
- Level: Covers N3 grammar and vocabulary
- English analogy: closest to phrasal verbs ( "start eating" → 食べ始める)
Layer 2: Lexical Compound Verbs (V1 as Multi-Functional Base)¶
~20 V1 bases that combine with many V2s.
- Key bases: 取り〜, 引き〜, 見〜, 受け〜, 立ち〜, 押し〜, 打ち〜, 追い〜
- Level: N2〜N1
- English analogy: Like "give up / give in / give out / give away" - learn the base, then the combinations
Layer 3: Polysemous Verbs (Single Verb, Many Meanings)¶
~190 basic verbs with radial category meanings.
- Key verbs: とる (take), かける (put/hang), はる (stretch), ぬく (pull out), ながす (flow), もつ (hold)
- Level: Beginner to advanced - ongoing acquisition
- English analogy: Same as English "give" (donate, produce, bend, utter)
Research Resources¶
| Resource | Content | URL |
|---|---|---|
| Compound Verb Lexicon (NINJAL) | 2,700+ compound verb database | vvlexicon.ninjal.ac.jp/en |
| Basic Verb Handbook (NINJAL) | 190 polysemous verbs explained | www2.ninjal.ac.jp/verbhandbook |
| Compound Verb Table (Niwa Saburō) | Exhaustive list (Japanese) | kenrick95.github.io/... |
| Kenkyūsha's Practical Dictionary of Japanese Compound Verbs | 3,547 entries | kenkyusha.co.jp |
| Japanese Polysemous Verbs (Taishūkan) | 50 verbs analyzed cognitively | taishukan.co.jp |